Arthurian Influence on The Lord of the Rings

Few, if any, books come close to being as beloved—or as ubiquitous—as J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings trilogy, which have enabled millions of fans to escape through the hobbit hole to a magical world where the forces of good and evil are clearly defined. Best-sellers for decades, they became even more popular on the heels of Peter Jackson’s Oscar-winning lm adaptations. The Lord of the Rings is one of the best trilogies ever written, with over 150 million copies sold. This, combined with the commercial success of its Academy- Award winning motion picture adaptation, has helped transform The Lord of the Rings into a household name. Throughout, fans have not only read the books, they’ve engaged with them, building one of the most active and creative fan communities in the world. The response to Tolkien’s work has been nothing short of astonishing. In fact, it would be accurate to label it a cultural phenomenon. Even 30 years after the author’s death in 1973, his books are hugely popular. According to Time magazine, 11 million copies were sold in 2001 in the United States alone. Sales worldwide approach a staggering 50 million copies, thanks in large part to the enormous success of the movie trilogy based on them. As a result of his stories, Tolkien is credited with helping to create the literary genre known as fantasy. Tolkien’s writings about that imaginary world captivated succeeding generations like few books had ever done. Borrowing from ancient literature and mythology, he gave life to his own brand of elves, dwarves, fairies, goblins and trolls, and to some new creatures he called “hobbits.” This latter race of small people became the core of the story as they attempted to save their world from the ultimate evil. Tolkien, who was a professor of both Anglo-Saxon Language, drew upon influences like Beowulf and Norse mythology to find his idea for Middle Earth and all of its unique properties. Daniel Nozick’s essay, “Arthurian Influence on The Lord of the Rings,” traces Tolkien’s use of Arthurian legend and the Holy Grail through The Lord of the Rings by examining major parallels between characters and plot devices. Nozick examines King Arthur embodied within Aragorn and Frodo, and the One Ring versus the Holy Grail. He posits that The Lord of the Rings and Arthurian legend teach the same moral from opposing sides – power is self-destructive if used for selfish purposes. Since their appearance in the 1950s, Tolkien’s books have inspired readers to see parallels between events in the story and ancient mythology. But, there are also connections of the real world today. Readers have drawn conclusions connecting the story to different political environments and time periods, as well as many allusions linking The Lord of the Rings to religion. The debate as to what Tolkien meant by his stories continued up to the author’s death in 1973. Since that time, primarily as a result of the successful release of the movies, The Lord of the Rings has gained a new generation of fans and converts. And like their parents (or grandparents) before them, this generation has found their own meanings in the books.


Characters
Tolkien drew heavily on Arthurian legend while creating the mythical realm in which The Lord of the Rings takes place. As a result, one of the most important characters to analyze is King Arthur, Tolkien's reflection of whom we find within The Lord of the Rings. King Arthur is embodied primarily within Aragorn, son of Arathorn. However, Frodo shares traits with King Arthur as well.
In all likelihood, Tolkien knew before he even conceived the character of Aragon that the ultimate King in his saga would be based off of King Arthur. King Arthur is a legendary figure that would have dominated many texts which Tolkien studied. In spite of Tolkien's declamation of Arthurian legends, there are clear parallels to be drawn between these legends and The Lord of the Rings. Some may be coincidental, but many are based on obvious symbolism or mythology from the world of Arthur. For example, there are two obvious incidences of overlap which could have been coincidence. One, the prefix, "Ar" stands for "King" or "Royal" -this is a simple trait which relates Arthur and Aragorn. Secondly, in spite of being perhaps the most prominent figure in the respective realms which these two legends take place in, neither is focused around the King. Tolkien did not intend for his series to be directly about a King coming into his own, nor is it, just as the legends revolving around King Arthur serve to provide the audience with morals, as opposed to stories about the actions of a King. Both Arthur and Aragorn serve a complementary characters, playing a supporting role to the larger story. However, there are many more purposeful, obvious comparisons to draw between Arthur and Aragorn. One such incidence comes in regards to their similar upbringing.
There is an expansive history in legend regarding King Arthur's upbringing. The first continuous account of Arthur was written in 1137 by Geoffrey of Monmouth within Historia regum Britanniae -the History of Kings of Britain. This helped influence Wace, who adapted this history into French, forsaking a full translation in favor of adding more elaborate details to the life of Arthur with Roman de Brut in 1155. Wace is the first to present the Round Table in a story about Arthur. Finally, Wace influences the next generation of Arthurian writers, including two notable individuals: Chretien de Troyes, the creator of medieval Arthurian romances, and Layamon, the author who adapted Wace's work into English with Brut in 1200. Brut served to elaborate even further on the details of Arthur's life, which leads me back to the similarities between the upbringing of Arthur and Aragorn.
In Brut, one of the most outstanding details which Layamon provides is a detailed account of Arthur's birth. Layamon claims that at birth, Arthur was entrusted to faeries for safekeeping, as well as to be blessed in a manner similar to a Baptism. These faeries supposedly "enchanted the child with magic most strong… prince virtues most good. " These virtues include courage, strength, wisdom, kingship, and long life. We can also reach the conclusion that Arthur is essentially the epitome of virtue; Arthur represents all of the virtue of Jesus and heavenly love, and this sentiment is mirrored in Layaman's work. Aragorn is raised in similar circumstances. According the Tolkien's lore of Middle Earth, Aragorn is raised by elves in Rivendell. He is trained alongside Elrond's sons to fight orcs and is raised with Elrond serving as his foster-father. Just as Arthur is made virtuous as a result of his experience with the elves, so is Aragorn affected by his upbringing. Aragorn respects and appreciates nature, an elvish virtue which is exemplified by his occupation as a ranger when we first encounter him in The Lord of the Rings. Additionally, Aragorn holds great respect and knowledge for the ancient traditions of elves and men. He speaks Elvish, is a capable healer, and is well respected by many powerful beings within Middle Earth, being both an elf-friend and a personal friend of Gandalf.
There are many occurrences throughout The Lord of the Rings of Aragorn portraying his virtues. The most significant instant that comes to mind occurs when the audience first encounters him as a character in the guise of Strider. Strider takes responsibility for Frodo and his friends, putting himself on the line to save both the hobbits and the ring from the ring wraiths. Although Aragorn is not directly Christ-like, his inherent elven traits and virtuous morals portray him as greater than the average man.
Finally, the strongest comparison that can be drawn between Arthur and Aragorn is the power imbued in their respective legendary swords, Excalibur and Anduril. These swords are essential to the claims both Arthur and Aragorn have to their thrones, and are almost prophetic in their symbolization of the King and his return. Sir Thomas Malory delves into the fine detail of Arthur's coming into his sword and kingship in his epic account, Le Morte D' Arthur. In Malory's account, the prophecy of Excalibur is written in gold lettering on the base of the plinth upon which the sword is impaled -"Whoso pulleth out this sword of this stone and anvil, is rightwise king born of all England. " In this account, Sir Ector is prompted to reveal that Uther Pendragon is Arthur's true father when Arthur claims the sword. This revelation supports Arthur's claim to the throne, and his repetitive drawing of the sword from anvil in front of masses where all else fails proves him to be the uncontested king. In The Lord of the Rings, Aragorn's sword is Anduril, the Sword that was Broken. This sword, originally named Narsil, holds significance because it is the sword that Isildur -Aragorn's forebear -used to strike the One Ring from Sauron's finger. As such, it is the sole blade which Sauron fears. There is also a prophecy regarding Narsil, which we see twice in The Lord of the Rings -once in Gandalf 's initial letter to Frodo and once when Bilbo recites it at the Council of Elrond. This prophecy comes in the form of a poem: "All that is gold does not glitter, / Not all those who wander are lost; / The old that is strong does not wither, / Deep roots are not reached by the frost. / From the ashes a fire shall be woken, / A light from the shadows shall spring; / Renewed shall be blade that was broken, / The crownless again shall be king. " When this prophecy is nearly fulfilled and the re-forged blade of Narsil is brought to Aragorn, he renames the sword Anduril. Arthur rises from the ashes of Uther Pendragon's reign, and Aragorn very similarly rises from the ashes of the kingdoms of men, Arnor and Gondor, to reclaim his realm. In each separate legend, the fulfillment of the prophecy and wielding of the sword by its proper king results in Arthur and Aragorn respectively overcoming the evils which oppress their land.
Frodo is one of the main protagonists of The Lord of the Rings, and as a result, also shares many characteristics with King Arthur. One comparison that can be drawn is that the relationship between Arthur and his nemesis, Mordred, is mirrored by the relationship between Frodo and Gollum. Mordred smites Arthur in the side of the head, which brings about his metaphoric and real death as he is put on a boat for Avalon. This is likened in The Lord of the Rings to Frodo being assaulted by Gollum, having the ring bitten off of his finger representing a form of death as Gollum plunges into the fires of Mount Doom. We see Frodo as synonymous with King Arthur as a physically and psychologically scarred Frodo sets sail with Gandalf, Galadriel, Elrond, and Bilbo for Valinor. Avalon and Valinor are similar in that they are equated to heaven, or a place beyond mortal realms. Likewise, Sir Bedivere's final goodbye with his dying king is likened to Frodo's exchange with Sam before his departure. It is insinuated in each situation that Frodo and King Arthur respectively will disappear from the world, but continue to carry on in legend and in the memory of the world they saved.
Next, there is thread in Frodo's acquisition of Sting which mirrors Arthur's pulling of sword from stone. Rather than simply handing Frodo the blade, Bilbo unsheathes Sting and buries it point-first in a plank of wood, which Frodo must pull the sword out of in order to claim it as his own. Finally, however, the strongest comparison between Frodo and King Arthur comes from the allegiance of their peers. Arthur is the naturalborn king. However, he forms the Round Table as a brotherhood, with the symbolic ring which serves as their table representing their equality. However, as king, all of the knights of the realm have knelt and pledged their loyalty to King Arthur as their leader. We see this same process enacted at the Council of Elrond, when the Fellowship of the Ring is being chosen. Frodo is elected to serve as the Ring Bearer, and each of the members of the fellowship pledge to protect Frodo with their life until the conclusion of his journey. Both Arthur and Frodo are young and inexperienced when they come into these roles of leadership, but do their best to live up to expectations and find the way to success.

Ring vs. Grail
Many people do not think to compare the One Ring in The Lord of the Rings to the mythic Holy Grail that Jesus drank from at the last supper. However, I do not believe that there is a more suitable comparison. It can be difficult to relate the two objects at first glance -the One Ring is considered evil and divisive, while the Holy Grail represents love, enlightenment, and virtue. The differences between the two are apparent through their opposing physical descriptions. The One Ring is bright and grabs the attention of anyone in its vicinity almost unconsciously. This is evidenced all throughout Tolkien's texts. Every single character in The Lord of the Rings is tempted by the ring, with the potential exception of Samwise Gamgee. Boromir almost kills Frodo to take the ring. Gollum is obsessed with the object and refers to it as "my precious. " Even Gandalf, one of the most powerful beings in Middle Earth, is tempted by the power of the One Ring and feels the need to flee because he is scared of the nearly unlimited power that the ring would give him. We also see that the ring brings out the worst in people. Nearly anyone who sees the ring becomes instantaneously covetous -the ring inspires people to show their worst side. Argument can even be made that the One Ring symbolizes original sin, paralleling the story of Cain and Abel when we see Smeagol kill his best friend Deagol to claim the ring on his birthday. Physically, the wring is wrought of perfect, gleaming gold -an object of lust. We see the malevolent nature of the ring through how temperamental it is. The ring is capable of changing sizes to fit the finger of its bearer. However, it also has a tendency to expand and slip off of the wearer's finger unnoticed. We also see the ring attempt to choke Frodo on occasion by pulling the chain it is held on taut against Frodo's neck in an attempt to escape and return to its master. Anyone can claim the One Ring. In fact, part of the ring's ability to dominate wills is that it compels people in a way that will bring it closer to Sauron. One need only to overpower whoever possesses the ring, which results in the worst types of beings attempting to take the ring, and possession changing through murder or theft. It is by this mode that the ring draws ever closer to its true master. In contrast, the Holy Grail is an object of modesty. In Malory's Le Morte D' Arthur, the only description of the chalice is "a vessel of gold… covered with red samite. " It is important to acknowledge that unless it is being used, the Sangreal is always covered with cloth. Rather than show of this object of power, it is veiled in modesty. We see this imagery repeated in popular culture involving the Grail. For example, in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, the Holy Grail is the smallest, simplest cup in a room full of ornate chalices and goblets. Additionally, the Quest for the Sangreal draws the best of people to this object, as opposed to the worst in The Lord of the Rings. In fact, only three knights achieve the Grail, and they achieve their goal by being of pure virtue. Nor does anyone try to take the Grail by force. Rather, it is lovingly protected and willingly given to Galahad, the purest of all the knights who attempted to find the Grail. Finally, the physicality of these respective objects of power and the symbolism of rings are tackled from opposing sides. There was peace in Middle Earth until the One Ring was forged, whereupon the world was plunged into a dark wasteland. The destruction of the ring brings peace to the land again, and allows for the onset of the First Age of Men. However, in Le Morte D' Arthur and other Arthurian legends, the formation of the ring represents the onset of peace -both through Arthur's marriage to Guinevere with a ring, and through the symbolism of the Round Table's knightly brotherhood. However, Camelot becomes a wasteland when both of these rings are broken by Guinevere's relationship with Lancelot. Peace only returns to the land when the Holy Grail is reclaimed. The Round Table is reunified, and Guinevere becomes an abbess to repent for her sins and resist temptation. In both stories, peace and health and prosperity only return to the kingdom following the achievement of the Quest. This leads me to the next Arthurian influence on The Lord of the Rings -the Wasteland and the Fisher King.
The Fisher King has been a figure of Arthurian lore since Chretian de Troyes wrote Perceval in the twelfth century. He is a symbolic figure that represents the needs of a nation. The story of the Fisher King in Perceval is that he was wounded in battle, and now is unable to mount a horse. As a result, he is an active fisherman instead. However, since being wounded, the Fisher King's realm has fallen into disarray and become a desolate wasteland. His people and land are sickly, and only remain sustained because the Fisher King's castle holds the Holy Grail. The only way for the king and his kingdom to be fully healed is for Perceval to ask the right questions and achieve the Quest for the Holy Grail. This model of the Fisher King serves as the basis of all such characters in Arthurian legend -a suffering king who is incapable of healing himself, rather being forced to rely on an outside source for healing. In Malcolm Godwin's, The Holy Grail, he addresses that "there exists a direct casual relationship between the well-being and health of the king/hero and the fertility of his realm. " This is evidenced throughout Arthurian legend. I have already addressed the symbolism of the breaking of the Round Table, which resulted in Camelot falling into turmoil and disarray as a result of Lancelot and Guinevere's betrayals. In Perceval, Perceval fails to heal the Fisher King because he is morally immature, and fails to ask questions about the Grail. In Le Morte D' Arthur, we see the motif of the Fisher King through the multiple Maimed Kings, as well as through Pellam and Pelles. We see both the Fisher King and the Wasteland exemplified when Balin smites King Pellam with the Holy Lance. Pellam is not slain, but his wounds cannot heal until Galahad arrives. Galahad is the purest and most virtuous of the knights who achieve the Grail quest, and thus restores King Pellam upon his arrival. These two motifs are used repetitively throughout all of Tolkien's work, and occur multiple times in The Lord of the Rings alone. In the primary trilogy mankind has fallen and is making its last stand. The two great kingdoms of men -Arnor and Gondor -have both fallen. It is a dark age, a wasteland if you will. Sauron is regaining his power. Armies are teeming in Mordor and evil creatures are massing to assault Middle Earth. The wasteland of Middle Earth can only be made fertile again with the completion of the Ring Quest and destruction of the ring's power. Aragorn serves the role of the Fisher King in a sense. He is sickly and weak in that he has no kingdom. He is lost to the world while a Steward rules the remnants of Gondor. Additionally, people think he and his people are weak. He has been dishonored by his ancestor, Isildur, who is criticized and disdained for coveting and claiming the One Ring as his own when he had the opportunity to destroy it. Just like the Fisher King, Aragorn is unable to heal himself and his kingdom on his own. He must fight to prove himself and his right to rule, and must rely upon Frodo to bring about the ultimate healing of Middle Earth by destroying the ring. However, smaller examples of this motif pervade the trilogy as well. Another notable example is with King Theodin and Rohan. When we first encounter the king, he is weak and decrepit with old age. He is rendered helpless and powerless by devices of his advisor, Grima (Wormtongue), a secret agent of Saruman. Wormtongue controls many of King Theodin's actions, and keeps him bedridden while Rohan is beset by Orcs and Dunlendings from Isengard. King Theodin is unable to aid himself, akin to the Fisher King. Instead, Theodin is forced to rely upon Gandalf the White to reveal Wormtongue as the traitor that he is, and to restore Theodin to his senses and his kingdom. Yet another example comes from the Men of the Mountains. Also known as the Dead Men of Dunharrow, these men were cursed when their King abandoned his oath to help Isildur in the war against Sauron. As a result, these dead men are forced to dwell in the metaphoric wasteland between life and death, knowing no peace or rest until Aragorn provides them with the opportunity to fulfill their oath. In this way, these dead men cannot heal themselves, but must rely on another to provide them with the opportunity to heal themselves. Finally, this motif is present in the storyline of Galadriel, the lady of the forest, and her home of Lothlorien. In this sense, the motif is shown inversely. The presence of Galadriel and her ring of power (another ring symbolism in the trilogy) keep Lothlorien healthy and fertile. However, as her ring's power wanes and she prepares to retreat to the West and Valoran, we see the power of the land begin to fade, and the elves of the forest fade into nostalgia.
A final comparison to be drawn between the One Ring and the Holy Grail comes on the basis of the respective items' power and abilities. The two are similar in their imbuement of power. Tolkien's lore explains that when Sauron forged the One Ring, he was forced to put a vast portion of his power into the substance to make it as strong as it is. With the ring on his finger, Sauron is exponentially more powerful. However, without the ring, he is reduced to a fragment of his original self. Similarly, the Holy Grail is imbued with the blood of Jesus. The Grail is supposedly the cup which Jesus drank from at the Last Supper. It is this same vessel in which Joseph of Arimathea collected blood flowing from Jesus' side following his crucifixion. It is this imbuement with the blood of the son of the Christian god which grants the Holy Grail its power in Arthurian legend.
Noteworthy of mention is the apparent indestructibility of the One Ring, aside from in the fires of Mordor. We see the ring come through the entirety of the Quest untarnished. In the first Lord of the Rings movie, we see Gimli swing his ax at the ring full force, only to shatter his weapon. The only noticeable mark on the ring is seen when tossed into a fire and hot coals by Gandalf, which reveals an inscription on the ring. On the other hand, we do not see many physical traits of the Holy Grail in Arthurian legend -it is used more as a metaphor than as a physical object. However, no one in Arthurian legend desires, nor would conceive, to destroy the Holy Grail. The legends are too Christian, and that would be almost sacrilegious. However, we can assume that the Grail is indestructible for all sakes and purposes. The Grail's primary power is regeneration and healing. In Le Morte D' Arthur, we see Sir Ector and Sir Percival healed by the power of the Grail. They are granted a brief glimpse of the holy vessel, and "forthwithal they both were as whole of hide and limb as ever they were in their life-days. " With the ability to heal anyone, as well as sustain the entire kingdom of the Fisher King, it is reasonable to conclude that the Grail is capable of restoring itself as well. Additionally, the Grail provides happiness, eternal youth, and food in infinite abundance similar to a cornucopia. The Grail is an object of inherent virtue, which helps the kingdom as a whole and bestows favor upon those virtuous enough to achieve its Quest. An important comparison between the Grail and the One Ring is the postponement of death. The Grail's power is vast enough to provide eternal youth. The ring, a corrupt force, does not have such a strong ability. However, possession and use of the ring does extend the lifetime of the bearer considerably. Gollum is an age old creature driven solely by his addiction to the ring's power, and we see Bilbo Baggins live to be older than 111 years (the birthday he celebrates in The Fellowship of the Ring). The One Ring's primary power, however -domination of will -is the anti-Grail in a sense. While evil forces covet the ring for its power and desire to return it to Sauron, the Ring appears to inherently good characters as a symbol of hope, offering the power to defeat Sauron and bring peace to the world. However, the evil power of Sauron imbued in the ring will twist its bearer into another evil being, regardless of one's intentions at the outset. We see Isildur, a legendary King of Men, seduced by the power of the ring. This is how we see Smeagol, a Hobbit-like creature, transform into creature that is Gollum over the course of hundreds of years. While the Grail provides happiness, we see that possession of the ring for too long has negative effects upon the bearer. A malevolent countenance, premature aging, and a nearly unbearable sadness and pain which psychologically scar Frodo. While the Grail restores people to full health, the One Ring will corrupt them until they turn into a wraith like the Nazgul. The One Ring's other primary power is that it renders the user invisible if the wear the ring upon their finger. However, this comes at a cost, as it drains the wearer and brings Sauron's attention to the location of the wearer. We see Frodo constantly sought after by the Eye of Sauron and by the Nazgul over the course of his Quest. The effects of this invisibility are almost exactly the opposite of the effects of encountering the Holy Grail. Wearing the One Ring dims the sight of the user while heightening other senses, revealing the wearer to creatures such as the Nazgul. In contrast, encountering the Holy Grail is a fleeting moment, in which one experiences the presence of Jesus and a clean maiden bearing his Grail.

Conclusion
Ultimately, the Quest for the One Ring and the Quest for the Holy Grail have the same moral -that selfish use of power is self-destructive. We see that the power of the One Ring will enslave its master if it is used for selfish purposes rather than controlled. Gollum attempts to claim the ring from Frodo for his own selfish purposes, which ends with his destruction along with the ring. Similarly, the Grail can retaliate if misused. In Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, we see the power of the Grail destroy the cave that it has been protected in. In Le Morte D' Arthur, Lancelot hears a voice forbidding him from gazing upon the Grail, but when he tries to enter anyways, "nigh he felt a breath, that him thought it was intermeddled with fire, which smote him so sore in the visage that him thought it brent his visage; and therewith he fell to the earth, and had no power to arise, as he that was so araged, that had lost the power of his body, and his hearing, and his seeing. " We see this moral exemplified in Arthurian legend in the story of the sword and the stone. Arthur does not draw Excalibur from its enchanted anvil selfishly, hoping to become king and gain power. Rather, Arthur's brother Sir Kay had lost his sword and Arthur fetched the sword from the stone that his brother should not be without a sword. With his selflessness, Arthur proves himself to be a just and rightful king. Similarly, Frodo and Aragorn prove themselves with their selflessness in the Quest for the One Ring. In spite of Tolkien's insistence that Arthurian legend did not have a large influence on the realm of Middle Earth, there is plenty of evidence to the contrary, and too many parallels can be drawn across Tolkien's work to be incidental. I am confident in concluding that the world which Tolkien created in The Lord of the Rings and its extended universe would not be the same without the influence of Arthurian legend and the Holy Grail.